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An Atlas of [N II] and [O III] Images and Spectra of Planetary Nebulae
We present an atlas of Hubble Space Telescope images and ground-based,long-slit, narrowband spectra centered on the 6584 Å line of [NII] and the 5007 Å line of [O III]. The spectra were obtained fora variety of slit positions across each target (as shown on the images)in an effort to account for nonspherical nebular geometries in a robustmanner. We have extended the prolate ellipsoidal shell model originallydevised by Aaquist, Zhang, and Kwok to generate synthetic images, aswell as long-slit spectra. Using this model, we have derived basicparameters for the subsample of PNe that present ellipsoidal appearancesand regular kinematic patterns. We find differences between ourparameters for the target PNe as compared to those of previous studies,which we attribute to increased spatial resolution for our image dataand the inclusion of kinematic data in the model fits. The data andanalysis presented in this paper can be combined with detections ofnebular angular expansion rates to determine precise distances to the PNtargets.
| The Abundances of Light Neutron-Capture Elements in Planetary Nebulae. I. Photoionization Modeling and Ionization Corrections
We have conducted a large-scale survey of 120 planetary nebulae (PNe) tosearch for the near-infrared emission lines [Kr III] 2.199 μm and [SeIV] 2.287 μm. The neutron (n)-capture elements Se and Kr may beenriched in a PN if its progenitor star experienced s-processnucleosynthesis and third dredge-up. In order to determine Se and Krabundances, we have added these elements to the atomic databases of thephotoionization codes Cloudy and XSTAR, which we use to deriveionization correction factors (ICFs) to account for the abundances ofunobserved Se and Kr ions. However, much of the atomic data governingthe ionization balance of these two elements are unknown, and have beenapproximated from general principles. We find that uncertainties in theatomic data can lead to errors approaching 0.3 dex in the derived Seabundances and up to 0.2-0.25 dex for Kr. To reduce the uncertainties inthe Kr ionization balance stemming from the approximate atomic data, wehave modeled 10 bright PNe in our sample, selected because they exhibitemission lines from multiple Kr ions in their optical and near-infraredspectra. We have empirically adjusted the uncertain Kr atomic data untilthe observed line intensities of the various Kr ions are adequatelyreproduced by our models. Using the adjusted Kr atomic data, we havecomputed a grid of models over a wide range of physical parameters(central star temperature, nebular density, and ionization parameter)and derived formulae that can be used to compute Se and Kr ICFs. In thesecond paper of this series, we will apply these ICFs to our full sampleof 120 PNe, which comprises the first large-scale survey of n-captureelements in PNe.This paper includes data taken at the McDonald Observatory of theUniversity of Texas at Austin.
| Planetary nebulae abundances and stellar evolution
A summary is given of planetary nebulae abundances from ISOmeasurements. It is shown that these nebulae show abundance gradients(with galactocentric distance), which in the case of neon, argon, sulfurand oxygen (with four exceptions) are the same as HII regions and earlytype star abundance gradients. The abundance of these elements predictedfrom these gradients at the distance of the Sun from the center areexactly the solar abundance. Sulfur is the exception to this; the reasonfor this is discussed. The higher solar neon abundance is confirmed;this is discussed in terms of the results of helioseismology. Evidenceis presented for oxygen destruction via ON cycling having occurred inthe progenitors of four planetary nebulae with bilobal structure. Theseprogenitor stars had a high mass, probably greater than 5 Mȯ. Thisis deduced from the high values of He/H and N/H found in these nebulae.Formation of nitrogen, helium and carbon are discussed. The high massprogenitors which showed oxygen destruction are shown to have probablydestroyed carbon as well. This is probably the result of hot bottomburning.
| Bubbles in planetary nebulae and clusters of galaxies: jet bending
We study the bending of jets in binary stellar systems. A compactcompanion accretes mass from the slow wind of the mass-losing primarystar, forms an accretion disc and blows two opposite jets. These fastjets are bent by the slow wind. Disregarding the orbital motion, we findthe dependence of the bending angle on the properties of the slow windand the jets. Bending of jets is observed in planetary nebulae which arethought to be the descendants of interacting binary stars. For example,in some of these planetary nebulae, the two bubbles (lobes) which areinflated by the two opposite jets are displaced to the same side of thesymmetry axis of the nebula. Similar displacements are observed inbubble pairs in the centre of some clusters and groups of galaxies. Wecompare the bending of jets in binary stellar systems with that inclusters of galaxies.
| The structure of planetary nebulae: theory vs. practice
Context.This paper is the first in a short series dedicated to thelong-standing astronomical problem of de-projecting the bi-dimensional,apparent morphology of a three-dimensional mass of gas. Aims.Wefocus on the density distribution in real planetary nebulae (and alltypes of expanding nebulae). Methods. We introduce some basictheoretical notions, discuss the observational methodology, and developan accurate procedure for determining the matter radial profile withinthe sharp portion of nebula in the plane of the sky identified by thezero-velocity-pixel-column (zvpc) of high-resolution spectral images.Results. The general and specific applications of the method (andsome caveats) are discussed. Moreover, we present a series of evolutivesnapshots, combining illustrative examples of both model and trueplanetary nebulae. Conclusions. The zvpc radial-densityreconstruction - added to tomography and 3D recovery developed at theAstronomical Observatory of Padua (Italy) - constitutes a very usefultool for looking more closely at the spatio-kinematics, physicalconditions, ionic structure, and evolution of expanding nebulae.
| The importance of soft X-rays for the excitation of H2 emission in planetary nebulae
We note that H2 emitting planetary nebulae tend to haveZanstra temperatures TZ(HeII) > 90 kK. This is shown to beconsistent with a large evolutionary lifetime, and the kinematic ages ofthe envelopes. Non-local thermodynamic equilibrium stellar atmosphericmodelling also shows that levels of soft X-ray emission increase morerapidly than has previously been assumed, and are preferentially largein H2 emitting sources. It is suggested that this may holdthe key to explaining the strengths of the H2 transitions.
| The Use of K_S Band Photometric Excesses to Investigate H(2) Emission in Planetary Nebulae
We have determined the distribution of H(2) emission in 14 planetarynebulae (PNe), using imaging and photometry published by the 2MASSinfrared survey. This technique is only applicable under certainstringent conditions, and requires precise broad band photometry, andaccurate spatial registration between the K_S and H band images. It is,in addition, only applicable to certain sources, and excludes outflowsin which central star and grain thermal excesses are appreciable. Ourresults for NGC 3132, NGC 6720, IC 4406 and M 2-9 are closely similar tothose of previous narrow band imaging, and confirm that H(2) emissionis confined to narrow, highly fragmented shells. Similar results areobtained for M 1-7, M 1-8, and M 3-5. Our spatial profiles also confirmthat the emission extends outside of the primary ionised shells. Whereenvelopes are large, and the PNe are more evolved, then the fractionalextensions Deltatheta/$theta appear to be at their smallest. They arealso similar to the radial widths predicted for H(2) abundanceprofiles, and to the values DeltaR/R determined throughmagnetohydrodynamic modelling of shocks. There appears, finally, to beevidence for an evolution in this parameter, such that Deltatheta/$thetavaries with increasing envelope size d(H) as Deltatheta/$theta ~d(H)(-2.2) .
| Morpho-Kinematic Modeling of Gaseous Nebulae with SHAPE
We present a powerful new tool to analyse and disentangle the 3-Dgeometry and kinematic structure of gaseous nebulae. The method consistsin combining commercially available digital animation software tosimulate the 3-D structure and expansion pattern of the nebula with adedicated, purpose-built rendering software that produces the finalimages and long slit spectra which are compared to the real data. Weshow results for the complex planetary nebulae NGC 6369 and Abell 30based on long slit spectra obtained at the San Pedro MártirObservatory.
| Morpho-kinematic modelling of gaseous nebulae with Shape
We present a powerful new tool to disentangle the 3-D geometry andkinematic structure of gaseous nebulae. The method consists of combiningcommercially available digital animation software to simulate the 3-Dstructure and expansion pattern of the nebula with a dedicated, purposebuilt rendering software that produces the final images and long slitspectra which are compared to the real data. In this contribution weshow results for the complex planetary nebula NGC369 based on long slitspectra obtained at the San Pedro Mártir observatory.
| Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emission bands in selected planetary nebulae: a study of the behaviour with gas phase C/O ratio
Airborne and space-based low-resolution spectroscopy in the 1980sdiscovered tantalizing quantitative relationships between the gas phaseC/O abundance ratio in planetary nebulae (PNe) and the fractions oftotal far-infrared (FIR) luminosity radiated by the 7.7- and 11.3-μmbands (the C = C stretch and C-H bend, respectively), of polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Only a very small sample of nebulae wasstudied in this context, limited by airborne observations of the7.7-μm band, or the existence of adequate IRAS Low ResolutionSpectrometer data for the 11.3-μm band. To investigate these trendsfurther, we have expanded the sample of planetaries available for thisstudy using Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) low-resolution spectrasecured with the Short Wavelength Spectrometer and the Long WavelengthSpectrometer. The new sample of 43 PNe, of which 17 are detected in PAHemission, addresses the range from C/O = 0.2-13 with the objective oftrying to delineate the pathways by which carbon dust grains might haveformed in planetaries. For the 7.7-μm and 11.3-μm bands, weconfirm that the ratio of band strength to total infrared (IR)luminosity is correlated with the nebular C/O ratio. Expressed inequivalent width terms, the cut-on C/O ratio for the 7.7-μm band isfound to be 0.6+0.2-0.4, in good accord with thatfound from sensitive ground-based measurements of the 3.3-μ band.
| The 3-D shaping of NGC 6741: A massive, fast-evolving Planetary Nebula at the recombination-reionization edge
We infer the gas kinematics, diagnostics and ionic radial profiles,distance and central star parameters, nebular photo-ionization model,spatial structure and evolutionary phase of the Planetary Nebula NGC6741 by means of long-slit ESO NTT+EMMI high-resolution spectra at nineposition angles, reduced and analysed according to the tomographic and3-D methodologies developed at the Astronomical Observatory of Padua(Italy). NGC 6741 (distance≃2.0 kpc, age≃ 1400 yr, ionizedmass Mion≃ 0.06 Mȯ) is a dense(electron density up to 12 000 cm-3), high-excitation,almost-prolate ellipsoid (0.036 pc × 0.020 pc × 0.018 pc,major, intermediate and minor semi-axes, respectively), surrounded by asharp low-excitation skin (the ionization front), and embedded in aspherical (radius≃ 0.080 pc), almost-neutral, high-density (n(HI)≃ 7 ×103 atoms cm-3) halo containinga large fraction of the nebular mass (Mhalo≥ 0.20Mȯ). The kinematics, physical conditions and ionicstructure indicate that NGC 6741 is in a deep recombination phase,started about 200 years ago, and caused by the rapid luminosity drop ofthe massive (M*=0.66{-}0.68 Mȯ), hot (logT* ≃ 5.23) and faint (logL*/Lȯ ≃ 2.75) post-AGB star, which hasexhausted the hydrogen-shell nuclear burning and is moving along thewhite dwarf cooling sequence. The general expansion law of the ionizedgas in NGC 6741, Vexp(km s-1)=13 × R arcsec,fails in the innermost, highest-excitation layers, which move slowerthan expected. The observed deceleration is ascribable to the luminositydrop of the central star (the decreasing pressure of the hot-bubble nolonger balances the pressure of the ionized gas), and appears instriking contrast to recent reports inferring that acceleration is acommon property of the Planetary Nebulae innermost layers. A detailedcomparative analysis proves that the "U"-shaped expansion velocity fieldis a spurious, incorrect result due to a combination of: (a) simplisticassumptions (spherical shell hypothesis for the nebula); (b) unfitreduction method (emission profiles integrated along the slit); and (c)inappropriate diagnostic choice (λ4686 Å of He II, i.e. athirteen fine-structure components recombination line). Some generalimplications for the shaping mechanisms of Planetary Nebulae arediscussed.
| The Chemical Composition of Galactic Planetary Nebulae with Regard to Inhomogeneity in the Gas Density in Their Envelopes
The results of a study of the chemical compositions of Galacticplanetary nebulae taking into account two types of inhomogeneity in thenebular gas density in their envelopes are reported. New analyticalexpressions for the ionization correction factors have been derived andare used to determine the chemical compositions of the nebular gas inGalactic planetary nebulae. The abundances of He, N, O, Ne, S, and Arhave been found for 193 objects. The Y Z diagrams for various Heabundances are analyzed for type II planetary nebulae separately andjointly with HII regions. The primordial helium abundance Y p andenrichment ratio dY/dZ are determined, and the resulting values arecompared with the data of other authors. Radial abundance gradients inthe Galactic disk are studied using type II planetary nebulae.
| Abundances in planetary nebulae: NGC 6886
ISO and IUE spectra of the round-shaped planetary nebula NGC6886 are combined with spectra in the visual wavelength regiontaken from the literature to obtain a complete, extinction correctedspectrum from ultraviolet to infrared wavelengths. The characteristicsof the nebula and its central star are determined by various methodsincluding photoionization modeling using Cloudy. The results of themodeling are checked against the observational data and compared tothose derived from a more classical abundance determination approach.The abundances determined are found to differ substantially from earlierresults although the observations used are essentially the same, exceptfor the inclusion of the ISO results. The reasons for this differenceare discussed. Finally, the main results are interpreted in terms of theevolutionary stage of NGC 6886 and its central star.Based on observations with ISO, an ESA project with instruments fundedby ESA Member States (especially the PI countries: France, Germany, TheNetherlands and the UK) and with the participation of ISAS and NASA.This work has also used IUE and HST archival data.
| A reexamination of electron density diagnostics for ionized gaseous nebulae
We present a comparison of electron densities derived from opticalforbidden line diagnostic ratios for a sample of over a hundred nebulae.We consider four density indicators, the [O II]λ3729/λ3726, [S II] λ6716/λ6731, [Cl III]λ5517/λ5537 and [Ar IV] λ4711/λ4740 doubletratios. Except for a few H II regions for which data from the literaturewere used, diagnostic line ratios were derived from our own high qualityspectra. For the [O II] λ3729/λ3726 doublet ratio, we findthat our default atomic data set, consisting of transition probabilitiesfrom Zeippen (\cite{zeippen1982}) and collision strengths from Pradhan(\cite{pradhan}), fit the observations well, although at high electrondensities, the [O II] doublet ratio yields densities systematicallylower than those given by the [S II] λ6716/λ6731 doubletratio, suggesting that the ratio of transition probabilities of the [OII] doublet, A(λ3729)/A(λ3726), given by Zeippen(\cite{zeippen1982}) may need to be revised upwards by approximately 6per cent. Our analysis also shows that the more recent calculations of[O II] transition probabilities by Zeippen (\cite{zeippen1987a}) andcollision strengths by McLaughlin & Bell (\cite{mclaughlin}) areinconsistent with the observations at the high and low density limits,respectively, and can therefore be ruled out. We confirm the earlierresult of Copetti & Writzl (\cite{copetti2002}) that the [O II]transition probabilities calculated by Wiese et al. (\cite{wiese}) yieldelectron densities systematically lower than those deduced from the [SII] λ6716/λ6731 doublet ratio and that the discrepancy ismost likely caused by errors in the transition probabilities calculatedby Wiese et al. (\cite{wiese}). Using our default atomic data set for [OII], we find that Ne([O II]) Ne([S II]) ≈Ne([Cl III])< Ne([Ar IV]).
| Planetary nebula distances re-examined: an improved statistical scale
The distances of planetary nebulae (PNe) are still quite uncertain.Although observational estimates are available for a small proportion ofPNe, based on statistical parallax and the like, such distances are verypoorly determined for the majority of galactic PNe. In particular,estimates of so-called `statistical' distance appear to differ byfactors of ~2.7.We point out that there is a well-defined correlation between the 5-GHzluminosity of the sources, L5, and their brightnesstemperatures, TB. This represents a different trend to thoseinvestigated in previous statistical analyses, and permits us todetermine independent distances to a further 449 outflows. Thesedistances are shown to be closely comparable to those determined using aTB-R correlation, providing that the latter trend is taken tobe non-linear.This non-linearity in the TB-R plane has not been noted inprevious analyses, and is likely responsible for the broad (andconflicting) ranges of distance that have previously been published.Finally, we point out that there is a close accord between observedtrends within the L5-TB and TB-Rplanes, and the variation predicted through nebular evolutionarymodelling. This is used to suggest that observational biases areprobably modest, and that our revised distance scale is reasonablytrustworthy.
| On the O II Ground Configuration Energy Levels
The most accurate way to measure the energy levels for the O II2p3 ground configuration has been from the forbidden lines inplanetary nebulae. We present an analysis of modern planetary nebuladata that nicely constrain the splitting within the 2D termand the separation of this term from the ground4S3/2 level. We extend this method to H II regionsusing high-resolution spectroscopy of the Orion Nebula, covering all sixvisible transitions within the ground configuration. These data confirmthe splitting of the 2D term while additionally constrainingthe splitting of the 2P term. The energies of the2P and 2D terms relative to the ground(4S) term are constrained by requiring that all six linesgive the same radial velocity, consistent with independent limits placedon the motion of the O+ gas and the planetary nebula data.
| Wind accretion by a binary stellar system and disc formation
I calculate the specific angular momentum of mass accreted by a binarysystem embedded in the dense wind of a mass-losing asymptotic giantbranch star. The accretion flow is of the Bondi-Hoyle-Lyttleton type.For most of the space of the relevant parameters the flow is basicallyan isothermal high Mach number accretion flow. I find that when theorbital plane of the accreting binary system and the orbital plane ofthe triple system are not parallel to each other, the accreted mass onto one or two of the binary system components has high specific angularmomentum. For a large fraction of triple-star systems, accretion discswill be formed around one or two of the stars in the binary system,provided that the mass ratio of the two stars in the accreting binarysystem is >~0.5. Such discs may blow jets which shape the descendantplanetary nebula (PN). The axis of jets will be almost parallel to theorbital plane of the triple-star system. One jet is blown outwardrelative to the wind, while the other jet passes near the mass-losingstar, and is more likely to be slowed down or deflected. I find thatduring the final asymptotic giant branch phase, when the mass-loss rateis very high, an accretion disc may form for orbital separation betweenthe accreting binary systems and the mass-losing star of up to ~400-800au. I discuss the implications for the shape of the descendant PN, andlist several PN which may have been shaped by an accreting binary-starsystem, i.e. by a triple-star system.
| Flux Ratio [Nev] 14.3/24.3 as a Test of Collision Strengths
From ISO [Nev] 14.3/24.3 μm line flux ratios, we find that 10 out of20 planetary nebulae (PNs) have measured ratios below the low-electrondensity (Ne) theoretical predicted limit. Such astronomicaldata serve to provide important tests of atomic data, collisionstrengths in this case. In principle, well-calibrated measurements ofthe [Nev] 14.3/24.3 flux ratio could improve upon the existing atomicdata.
| A reanalysis of chemical abundances in galactic PNe and comparison with theoretical predictions
New determinations of chemical abundances for He, N, O, Ne, Ar and Sare derived for all galactic planetary nebulae (PNe) so far observedwith a relatively high accuracy, in an effort to overcome differences inthese quantities obtained over the years by different authors usingdifferent procedures. These include: ways to correct for interstellarextinction, the atomic data used to interpret the observed line fluxes,the model nebula adopted to represent real objects and the ionizationcorrections for unseen ions. A unique `good quality' classical-typeprocedure, i.e. making use of collisionally excited forbidden lines toderive ionic abundances of heavy ions, has been applied to allindividual sets of observed line fluxes in each specific position withineach PN. Only observational data obtained with linear detectors, andsatisfying some `quality' criteria, have been considered. Suchobservations go from the mid-1970s up to the end of 2001. Theobservational errors associated with individual line fluxes have beenpropagated through the whole procedure to obtain an estimate of theaccuracy of final abundances independent of an author's `prejudices'.Comparison of the final abundances with those obtained in relevantmulti-object studies on the one hand allowed us to assess the accuracyof the new abundances, and on the other hand proved the usefulness ofthe present work, the basic purpose of which was to take full advantageof the vast amount of observations done so far of galactic PNe, handlingthem in a proper homogeneous way. The number of resulting PNe that havedata of an adequate quality to pass the present selection amounts to131. We believe that the new derived abundances constitute a highlyhomogeneous chemical data set on galactic PNe, with realisticuncertainties, and form a good observational basis for comparison withthe growing number of predictions from stellar evolution theory. Owingto the known discrepancies between the ionic abundances of heavyelements derived from the strong collisonally excited forbidden linesand those derived from the weak, temperature-insensitive recombinationlines, it is recognized that only abundance ratios between heavyelements can be considered as satisfactorily accurate. A comparison withtheoretical predictions allowed us to assess the state of the art inthis topic in any case, providing some findings and suggestions forfurther theoretical and observational work to advance our understandingof the evolution of low- and intermediate-mass stars.
| Sulfur, Chlorine, and Argon Abundances in Planetary Nebulae. IV. Synthesis and the Sulfur Anomaly
We have compiled a large sample of O, Ne, S, Cl, and Ar abundances thathave been determined for 85 Galactic planetary nebulae in a consistentand homogeneous manner using spectra extending from 3600 to 9600Å. Sulfur abundances have been computed using the near-IR lines of[S III] λλ9069, 9532 along with [S III] temperatures. Wefind average values, expressed logarithmically with a standarddeviation, of log(S/O)=-1.91+/-0.24, log(Cl/O)=-3.52+/-0.16, andlog(Ar/O)=-2.29+/-0.18, numbers consistent with previous studies of bothplanetary nebulae and H II regions. We also find a strong correlationbetween [O III] and [S III] temperatures among planetary nebulae. Inanalyzing abundances of Ne, S, Cl, and Ar with respect to O, we find atight correlation for Ne-O, and loose correlations for Cl-O and Ar-O.All three trends appear to be colinear with observed correlations for HII regions. S and O also show a correlation, but there is a definiteoffset from the behavior exhibited by H II regions and stars. We suggestthat this S anomaly is most easily explained by the existence ofS+3, whose abundance must be inferred indirectly when onlyoptical spectra are available, in amounts in excess of what is predictedby model-derived ionization correction factors in PNe. Finally for thedisk PNe, abundances of O, Ne, S, Cl, and Ar all show gradients whenplotted against Galactocentric distance. The slopes are statisticallyindistinguishable from one another, a result which is consistent withthe notion that the cosmic abundances of these elements evolve inlockstep.
| The relation between Zanstra temperature and morphology in planetary nebulae
We have created a master list of Zanstra temperatures for 373 galacticplanetary nebulae based upon a compilation of 1575 values taken from thepublished literature. These are used to evaluate mean trends intemperature for differing nebular morphologies. Among the most prominentresults of this analysis is the tendency forη=TZ(HeII)/TZ(HeI) to increase with nebularradius, a trend which is taken to arise from the evolution of shelloptical depths. We find that as many as 87 per cent of nebulae may beoptically thin to H ionizing radiation where radii exceed ~0.16 pc. Wealso note that the distributions of values η and TZ(HeII)are quite different for circular, elliptical and bipolar nebulae. Acomparison of observed temperatures with theoretical H-burning trackssuggests that elliptical and circular sources arise from progenitorswith mean mass ≅ 1 Msolar(although the elliptical progenitors are probably more massive).Higher-temperature elliptical sources are likely to derive fromprogenitors with mass ≅2 Msolar, however, implying thatthese nebulae (at least) are associated with a broad swathe ofprogenitor masses. Such a conclusion is also supported by trends in meangalactic latitude. It is found that higher-temperature ellipticalsources have much lower mean latitudes than those with smallerTZ(HeII), a trend which is explicable where there is anincrease in with increasing TZ(HeII).This latitude-temperature variation also applies for most other sources.Bipolar nebulae appear to have mean progenitor masses ≅2.5Msolar, whilst jets, Brets and other highly collimatedoutflows are associated with progenitors at the other end of the massrange (~ 1 Msolar). Indeed it ispossible, given their large mean latitudes and low peak temperatures,that the latter nebulae are associated with the lowest-mass progenitorsof all.The present results appear fully consistent with earlier analyses basedupon nebular scale heights, shell abundances and the relativeproportions of differing morphologies, and offer further evidence for alink between progenitor mass and morphology.
| Near-infrared spectroscopy of (proto)-planetary nebulae: molecular hydrogen excitation as an evolutionary tracer
We present an in-depth analysis of molecular excitation in 11H2-bright planetary and protoplanetary nebulae (PN and PPN).From newly acquired K-band observations, we extract a number of spectraat positions across each source. H2 line intensities areplotted on `column density ratio' diagrams so that we may examine theexcitation in and across each region. To achieve this, we combine theshock models of Smith, Khanzadyan & Davis with the photodissociationregion (PDR) models of Black & van Dishoeck to yield ashock-plus-fluorescence fit to each data set.Although the combined shock + fluorescence model is needed to explainthe low- and high-energy H2 lines in most of the sourcesobserved (fluorescence accounts for much of the emission from thehigher-energy H2 lines), the relative importance of shocksover fluorescence does seem to change with evolutionary status. We findthat shock excitation may well be the dominant excitation mechanism inthe least evolved PPN (CRL 2688 - in both the bipolar lobes and in theequatorial plane) and in the most evolved PN considered (NGC 7048).Fluorescence, on the other hand, becomes more important at intermediateevolutionary stages (i.e. in `young' PN), particularly in the inner coreregions and along the inner edges of the expanding post-asymptotic giantbranch (AGB) envelope. Since H2 line emission seems to beproduced in almost all stages of post-AGB evolution, H2excitation may prove to be a useful probe of the evolutionary status ofPPN and PN alike. Moreover, shocks may play an important role in themolecular gas excitation in (P)PN, in addition to the low- and/orhigh-density fluorescence usually attributed to the excitation in thesesources.
| Galactic Planetary Nebulae and their central stars. I. An accurate and homogeneous set of coordinates
We have used the 2nd generation of the Guide Star Catalogue (GSC-II) asa reference astrometric catalogue to compile the positions of 1086Galactic Planetary Nebulae (PNe) listed in the Strasbourg ESO Catalogue(SEC), its supplement and the version 2000 of the Catalogue of PlanetaryNebulae. This constitutes about 75% of all known PNe. For these PNe, theones with a known central star (CS) or with a small diameter, we havederived coordinates with an absolute accuracy of ~0\farcs35 in eachcoordinate, which is the intrinsic astrometric precision of the GSC-II.For another 226, mostly extended, objects without a GSC-II counterpartwe give coordinates based on the second epoch Digital Sky Survey(DSS-II). While these coordinates may have systematic offsets relativeto the GSC-II of up to 5 arcsecs, our new coordinates usually representa significant improvement over the previous catalogue values for theselarge objects. This is the first truly homogeneous compilation of PNepositions over the whole sky and the most accurate one available so far.The complete Table \ref{tab2} is only available in electronic form atthe CDS via anonymous ftp to cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr (130.79.128.5) or viahttp://cdsweb.u-strasbg.fr/cgi-bin/qcat?J/A+A/408/1029}
| The relation between elemental abundances and morphology in planetary nebulae
An investigation of the variation of elemental abundances with planetarynebula morphology is of considerable interest, since it has a bearingupon how such sources are formed, and from which progenitors they areejected. Recent advances in morphological classification now enable usto assess such trends for a statistically significant number of sources.We find, as a result, that the distribution N[log(X/H)] of sources withrespect to elemental abundance (X/H) varies between the differingmorphologies. Circular sources tend to peak towards low abundancevalues, whilst bipolar nebulae (BPNe) peak towards somewhat highervalues. This applies for most elemental species, although it is perhapsleast apparent for oxygen. In contrast, elliptical sources appear todisplay much broader functions N[log(X/H)], which trespass upon thedomains of both circular and elliptical planetary nebulae (PNe).We take these trends to imply that circular sources derive fromlower-mass progenitors, bipolar sources from higher-mass stars, and thatelliptical nebulae derive from all masses of progenitor, high and low.Whilst such trends are also evident in values of mean abundance, they are much less clear. Only in the cases of He/H, N/H,Ne/H and perhaps Ar/H is there evidence for significant abundancedifferences.Certain BPNe appear to possess low abundance ratios He/H and Ar/H, andthis confirms that a few such outflows may arise from lower-massprogenitors. Similarly, we note that ratios are quite modestin elliptical planetary nebulae, and not much different from those forcircular and bipolar PNe; a result that conflicts with the expectationsof at least one model of shell formation.
| Gas temperature and excitation classes in planetary nebulae
Empirical methods to estimate the elemental abundances in planetarynebulae usually use the temperatures derived from the [O III] and [N II]emission-line ratios, respectively, for the high- and low-ionizationzones. However, for a large number of objects these values may not beavailable. In order to overcome this difficulty and allow a betterdetermination of abundances, we discuss the relationship between thesetwo temperatures. Although a correlation is not easily seen when asample of different PNe types is used, the situation is improved whenthey are gathered into excitation classes. From [OII]/[OIII] andHeII/HeI line ratios, we define four excitation classes. Then, usingstandard photoionization models which fit most of the data, a linearrelation between the two temperatures is obtained for each of the fourexcitation classes. The method is applied to several objects for whichonly one temperature can be obtained from the observed emission linesand is tested by recalculation of the radial abundance gradient of theGalaxy using a larger number of PNe. We verified that our previousgradient results, obtained with a smaller sample of planetary nebulae,are not changed, indicating that the temperature relation obtained fromthe photoionization models are a good approximation, and thecorresponding statistical error decreases as expected. Tables 3-5, 7 and9 are only available in electronic form at http://www.edpsciences.org
| Classification of planetary nebulae by their departure from axisymmetry
We propose a scheme to classify planetary nebulae (PNe) according totheir departure from axisymmetric structure. We consider only departurealong and near the equatorial plane, i.e. between the two sidesperpendicular to the symmetry axis of the nebula. We consider six typesof departure from axisymmetry: (1) PNe where the central star is not atthe centre of the nebula; (2) PNe having one side brighter than theother; (3) PNe having unequal size or shape of the two sides; (4) PNewhere the symmetry axis is bent, e.g. the two lobes in a bipolar PN arebent toward the same side; (5) PNe where the main departure fromaxisymmetry is in the outer regions, e.g. an outer arc; and (6) PNe thatshow no departure from axisymmetry, i.e. any departure, if it exists, ison scales smaller than the scale of blobs, filaments and otherirregularities in the nebula. PNe that possess more than one type ofdeparture are classified by the most prominent type. We discuss theconnection between departure types and the physical mechanisms that maycause them, mainly resulting from the influence of a stellar binarycompanion. We find that ~50 per cent of all PNe in the analysed samplepossess large-scale departure from axisymmetry. This number is largerthan that expected from the influence of binary companions, namely~25-30 per cent. We argue that this discrepancy comes from many PNewhere the departure from axisymmetry, mainly unequal size, shape orintensity, results from the presence of long-lived and large (hot orcool) spots on the surface of their asymptotic giant branch progenitors.Such spots locally enhance the mass-loss rate, leading to a departurefrom axisymmetry, mainly near the equator, in the descendent PN.
| The 3-D ionization structure of the planetary nebula NGC 6565
A detailed study of the planetary nebula NGC 6565 has been carried outon long-slit echellograms (lambda /Delta lambda =60 000, spectral range= lambda lambda 3900-7750 Å) at six, equally spaced positionangles. The expansion velocity field, the c(Hβ ) distribution andthe radial profile of the physical conditions (electron temperature anddensity) are obtained. The distance, radius, mass and filling factor ofthe nebula and the temperature and luminosity of the central star arederived. The radial ionization structure is analyzed using both theclassical method and the photo-ionization code CLOUDY. Moreover, wepresent the spatial structure in a series of images from differentdirections, allowing the reader to ``see'' the nebula in 3-D. NGC 6565results to be a young (2000-2500 years), patchy, optically thicktriaxial ellipsoid (a=10.1 arcsec, a/b=1.4, a/c=1.7) projected almostpole-on. The matter close to major axis was swept-up by someaccelerating agent (fast wind? ionization? magnetic fields?), formingtwo faint and asymmetric polar cups. A large cocoon of almost neutralgas completely embeds the ionized nebula. NGC 6565 is in a recombinationphase, because of the luminosity drop of the massive powering star,which is reaching the white dwarf domain (log T* =~ 5.08 K;log L*/Lsun =~ 2.0). The stellar decline startedabout 1000 years ago, but the main nebula remained optically thin forother 600 years before the recombination phase occurred. In the nearfuture the ionization front will re-grow, since the dilution factor dueto the expansion will prevail on the slower and slower stellar decline.NGC 6565 is at a distance of 2.0 (+/-0.5) kpc and can be divided intothree radial zones: the ``fully ionized'' one, extending up to0.029-0.035 pc at the equator (0.050 pc at the poles), the``transition'' one, up to 0.048-0.054 pc (0.080 pc), the ``halo'',detectable up to 0.110 pc. The ionized mass ( =~ 0.03 Msun)is only a fraction of the total mass (>= 0.15 Msun), whichhas been ejected by an equatorial enhanced superwind of 4 (+/-2) x10-5 Msun yr-1 lasted for 4 (+/-2) x103 years. Based on observations made with ESO Telescopes atthe La Silla Observatories, under programme ID 65.I-0524, and onobservations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtainedfrom the data archive at the Space Telescope Institute (observingprogram GO 7501; P.I. Arsen Hajian). STScI is operated by theassociation of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under theNASA contract NAS 5-26555. We have applied the photoionization codeCLOUDY, developed at the Institute of Astronomy of the CambridgeUniversity.
| High Dispersion Spectra for Planetary Nebula Studies
The extremely complicated shapes of planetary nebulae revealed throughthe high resolution radio maps, direct imaging with the Hubble SpaceTelescope and observations with adaptive optics at large telescopes, aregreatly different from their imagined simplicity long ago. To addressthe complexity in physical conditions and geometries of planetarynebulae, one must secure spectra of high spatial resolution and highdispersion. It also may require a long exposure even with a largetelescopic aperture to reach faint features. We briefly review plasmadiagnostics and a diagnostic possibility of iron ions based on ourrecent high dispersion spectroscopic work.
| Study of electron density in planetary nebulae. A comparison of different density indicators
We present a comparison of electron density estimates for planetarynebulae based on different emission-line ratios. We have considered thedensity indicators [O Ii]lambda 3729/lambda 3726, [S Ii]lambda6716/lambda 6731, [Cl Iii]lambda 5517/lambda 5537, [Ar Iv]lambda4711/lambda 4740, C Iii]lambda 1906/lambda 1909 and [N I]lambda5202/lambda 5199. The observational data were extracted from theliterature. We have found systematic deviations from the densityhomogeneous models, in the sense that: Ne(ion {N}i) <~Ne(ion {O}{ii}) < Ne(ion {S}{ii}, ion {C}{iii},ion {Cl}{iii} or ion {Ar}{iv}) and Ne(ion {S}{ii}) ~Ne(ion {C}{iii}) ~ Ne(ion {Cl}{iii}) ~Ne(ion {Ar}{iv}). We argue that the lower [O Ii] densityestimates are likely due to errors in the atomic parameters used.
| Shapes and Shaping of Planetary Nebulae
We review the state of observational and theoretical studies of theshaping of planetary nebulae (PNe) and protoplanetary nebulae (pPNe). Inthe past decade, high-resolution studies of PNe have revealed abewildering array of morphologies with elaborate symmetries. Recentimaging studies of pPNe exhibit an even richer array of shapes. Thevariety of shapes, sometimes multiaxial symmetries, carefully arrangedsystems of low-ionization knots and jets, and the often Hubble-flowkinematics of PNe and pPNe indicate that there remains much tounderstand about the last stages of stellar evolution. In many cases,the basic symmetries and shapes of these objects develop on extremelyshort timescales, seemingly at the end of AGB evolution when the mode ofmass loss abruptly and radically changes. No single explanation fits allof the observations. The shaping process may be related to externaltorques of a close or merging binary companion or the emergence ofmagnetic fields embedded in dense outflowing stellar winds. We suspectthat a number of shaping processes may operate with different strengthsand at different stages of the evolution of any individual object.
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